A NATION’S RESINOUS PRIDE, OMAN’S MYSTICAL LUBAN — PT.2
OLFACTIVE STUDIO X ENFLEURAGE
Back in March 2022 the Olfactive Studio reporting team visited Oman for ten days, hoping to uncover the mystery behind a delicate ingredient: Frankincense, or as said in Arabic (Oman’s spoken language) “Luban” — from which derives the latin word “Olibanum”, and “Oliban” in French.
As introduced in our previous article from February, Oman is the birthplace of the Boswellia sacra species, the same Incense the Christ supposedly received on his birthday — a noble gift from the three magi.
We wanted to know more about Luban so we visited Enfleurage, a local distiller in Muscat, the capital of Oman, as well as a Frankincense researcher in Salalah, in the southern Dhofar region, to find some answers about this mysterious raw material and its market…
Follow us into the land of Frankincense and in the Dhofari desert, and travel through time to the early days of Luban!
THREE COUNTRIES TWO FRANKINCENSES
BRAINTEASING RESIN
Back when our natural ingredient expert was still a perfumery student, she composed fragrances in the lab, where Frankincense was most certainly among her numerous natural raw materials – as a heart and/or base note.
The Olibanum she worked with was mostly sourced (sourcing is the name of the purchasing/procurement department in the industry) in Somalia or Yemen – their countries of origin – as indicated on the raw materials’ bottle.
Omani Frankincense was way more exceptional to come across, and “Frankincense Somalia” was by far the most common. This led her, and our team, to investigate Oman’s – the source of all Boswellias – mythical Frankincense!
For the love of Oman and its fragrant treasure, we unveiled in this article, some of the answers we found during our journey.
SACRA VS CARTERI
We told you about the different species of Boswellia in our previous article on Frankincense, now – as you probably already got a hint – we’re zooming on the Arabian peninsula.
For a long time, the Boswellia carterii and Boswellia sacra species were believed – based on a few reports and their close-by geographical distribution – to be the same species of Frankincense tree. It was only recently (around 2012) that they were recognized – based on their organoleptic, botanical, olfactive properties, along with their topographical dispersion and physical/chemical analysis – as two different and unique species. Boswellia sacra corresponds to the trees from Oman and Yemen, whereas Boswellia carterii refers to Somalian Frankincense trees.
Before we tell you the tales of Oman’s resinous pride – as we like to call it – let’s introduce you four of our fragrances containing this mystical ingredient!
FRANKINCENSE IN OLFACTIVE STUDIO’S FRAGRANCES
WOODY MOOD
WOODY MOOD
Woody Mood sets the mood with tangy Bergamot, peppery Ginger, fruity Saffron and aromatic Clary Sage.
The top notes quickly fade, leaving room to a heart full of mellowness embellished by the resinous Frankincense, Sequoia accord – evoking the forests of these giant Californian conifers – followed by Black Tea, and Nard Jatamansi accord.
The Patchouli, Styrax, Leather accord and Cocoa Powder accord recall a beautifully smooth leather crafted by Bertrand Duchaufour.
At once citrus-woody-balmy-leathery, Woody Mood's construction is reminiscent of oriental fragrances, and its scent provides a comforting sensation.
OMBRE INDIGO
The perfume Ombre Indigo has subtle top notes because it is mainly composed of heart and base notes. Nevertheless Mylène Alran didn't forget at touch of freshness with Petitgrain Bigarade.
The result is a woody-floral-ambery-leathery scent with a truly striking smoky and ambery aspect with ingredients such as Saffron, Tuberose Absolute, Plum accord, Papyrus, Vetiver and Leather accord.
Benzoin and Musks also give depth and volume to this powerful fragrance.
Ombre Indigo is a fragrance combining the opulence of a flower of character, Tuberose, with a sweet Plum accord, and a bewitching Frankincense whose woody and smoky facets keep fascinating us.
AUTOPORTRAIT
In Autoportrait we discover a reassuring Frankincense, soothed by raw materials which altogether make the fragrance so addictive.
Bergamot & Elemi essence open the bal, and the structure of the perfume allows the woody-balsamic heart and base to reveal itself very quickly.
So what else is Nathalie Lorson's composition made of? Benzoin Siam, Cedarwood, Vetiver, Oakmoss Absolute and Musks!
Autoportrait is an elegant, deep, truly carnal fragrance with a mesmerizing trail.
CHAMBRE NOIRE
In Chambre Noire, Frankincense is opulent and bewitching, nothing less for such mystical raw material!
After bursting with Pink Berries the fragrance quickly reveals its heart of Egyptian Jasmine, but that’s not all! Papyrus essence, Violet accord, and Prune accord resonate in heart.
The base of Chambre Noire is filled with sensual ingredients: Vanilla Absolute Patchouli, Musks, and a Leather accord.
With Chambre Noire, we have a woody-balsamic fragrance, providing a real sensation of comforting warmth. The ensemble imagined by Dorothée Piot possesses many seducing oriental aspects.
TIME MACHINE
Let’s start with a quick introduction to Omani Incense, through Oman’s marvelous Incense heritage!
Getting facts checked is certainly one of the most important things when it comes to writing our reports, which is why a not-so-quick visit to the national archeology, Frankincense museums, and archeological sites were mandatory for our team!
We found so much precious information we brought back exclusively to share it with you — it’d be a shame to keep it to ourselves.
Frankincense has always been at the core of the Omani culture and people, long before it became a modern perfumery ingredient – by being extracted into a resinoid then distilled into an essential oil.
In 400 BC, Olibanum was conveyed from Dhofar by sea and land to the rest of the world. At that time no other merchandise equaled the tremendous demand Frankincense encountered – captivating ancient historians and scientists such as Herodutus, Pliny the Elder, Ptolemy, Strabo and Diodorus (who all mentioned it in their writings).
To cite one of them, Herodotus – in 5 AD – remarks “every year the Babylonians burnt 800 talents of incense for their supreme god Marduk.” – talents being an ancient weight and unit of currency.
ONE TRADE, THREE ANCIENT SITES
SUMHURAM
Three hundred years later, in 100 BC until 100 AD, an important port was built in Sumhuram (Khawr Rawrī or Khor Rori area) – the biggest pre-islamic settlement in Dhofar – for the Frankincense trade, and more precisely to take control of the latter. Ingeniously constructed, it was protected by stone blocks whose precise position forms the walled fortifications of the port. Arabic inscriptions which describe the founding of the settlement were found on five of these blocks.
The Khawr Rawri site is nowadays characterized by a bar-estuary – when a shallow lagoon or bay is protected from the ocean by a sandbar, delta or island. Back when it served as a major Frankincense harbor it was an open estuary!
The lucrative business of Dhofari Incense traveled to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus Valley, East Africa and the powerful Roman Empire.
QUOTE ON QUOTE
Sumhuram is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of The Land of Frankincense. The international organization affirmed “The frankincense trees of Wadi Dawkah [...] and the affiliated ports of Khawr Rawrī [...] vividly illustrate the trade in frankincense that flourished in this region for many centuries, as one of the most important trading activities of the ancient and medieval world.”
“Incense can stand on the quay without being guarded thanks to the power of a god who protects it. Not even a gain of precious resin can be loaded unlawfully. If a grain of incense is loaded the ship cannot sail as it is against the will of God.” This quote on Sumhuram from the first century AD was mentioned in the Greek work “The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea” – in which the settlement bears the Greek name of Moscha Limen.
INDISPUTABLE EVIDENCE
Frankincense storage rooms and production facilities were found in the site’s ancient residential area and commercial district during archeological excavations. Artifacts such as limestone Incense burners – from the Iron Age until the 5th century AD – with the typical South Arabic astral motif as part of its decorative elements can be admired.
Excavations revealing two religious areas were conducted, and more Incense burners were found in one of them – The Temple of Sin, one of the most prominent buildings in the city.
These objects are among the most found in Sumhuram! Employed for religious ceremonies as much as within the home, what varied the most about them was their shape – lion legs, pyramidal shape, etc. – size and materials (stone or metal).
AL BALEED
Initially called al-Mansura and al-Ahmadiyya, Al Baleed – another port city – was founded in 6 AD. It held a leading role in the sea trade after Sumhuram’s decline in the 3rd century AD.
It was described by famous travelers like Marco Polo in 1290 AD as one of the most magnificent and biggest harbors of the Indian Ocean. Because of its strategic position on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula – overlooking the Indian Ocean – the city quickly gained commercial importance. It is no secret it participated in the promotion of international trade, and concerning our subject of interest, the Frankincense trade!
The product left from Al Baleed all the way to China, passing by Southeast Asian countries, India, and other East African ports. These exchanges are proven by mentions of the city by explorers like Ibn al Mujawir (1220 AD), or leaders such as Zeng He – commander of the Chinese fleet from 1421 to 1431 AD.
On the route to Al Baleed – 180km north of Salalah – is found the oasis and caravan site of Shisr, a critical water halt dominated by an Iron Age fortress. Caravans were composed of hundreds of thousands of men and pack animals, and caravanserais – roadside inns – were established along the main trade routes for the caravaners to rest.
WADI DAWKAH
Located 40 kilometers North of Salalah, 1257 ancient Boswellia sacra trees are spread over an area of 5 square kms out of the total 19 sq kms of Wadi Dawkah. This incredible Frankincense reserve is a perfect example of how the species has been naturally thriving in its Dhofari homeland.
Suggestions from Neolithic sites nearby indicate the Incense trade started developing as early as in 6th millennia BC!
ARAB-ASICS OF LUBAN
In the 19th-20th centuries, Incense containers were used to store not only Luban, but also aromatic ingredients. These traditional airtight copper containers called mukkabah were made in the famous ancient city of Nizwa, renown for its talented coppersmiths — among other crafts — who held the secret to creating “tight fitting, fluted lids” precisely elaborated to prevent the essential oils from evaporating.
Not to be confused with mukkabah, “majmar” is the name given to Incense burners – and not just containers – in which hot coals are placed, sprinkled with Frankincense beads in order to release its scented smoke.
We spoke copper, now let’s talk silver! Nizwa’s artisanry is best represented — out of any other material — by silver. Apart from holding a sacred dimension from being the Prophet’s metal (associating it with purity), silverwork has been popular in Oman for centuries for personal adornment articles (weaponry, jewelry, money pouches). Silver incense and cosmetic containers are found among traditional women’s objects.
THE ACTORS OF FRANKINCENSE
To obtain information about the culture, collection, use of Incense in Oman; and its close ties to the Omani nation we had to meet the actors of Incense! Like mentioned above, we had the chance to meet a foreign distiller in Muscat, and an Omani Frankincense distiller and researcher in Salalah, who opened up about this incredible ingredient they’ve worked with for over 20 years.
DOCTOR FRANKINCENSE
A Dhofari Frankincense researcher and distiller – to make it simple a specialist – from the Salalah area helped us understand better the tales of this ingredient.
A MILLENIAL KNOW HOW
The country counts around 800K to a million trees, among which the oldest ones are over a hundred years old. They grow in a wild state, in arid deserts called wadi. It’s a hard-to-grow species and it takes 8 to 10 years for a tree to start producing commercially viable Incense.
TAP THE TREE!
In April – as the temperature rises – Frankincense farmers injure the tree – by making an incision on the trunk – then wait two weeks for the resin to exudate (a white sap), and harvest it at that time (after the sap now resin has hardened). The tool used to wound the tree consists in a knife with a wooden handle called manqaf. This first harvest isn’t of the best quality nor quantity and often hard to exploit commercially.
After this first harvest, they injure the tree on the same spot, wait another two weeks, and harvest the resin once again. This second harvest – as opposed to the first one – is exploitable business wise!
By then a month has passed by and the Luban resin has been collected twice. This practice involves 4 to 5 injuries for older, bigger trees which can handle more wounds than their younger smaller peers, which can only take a maximum of 3 injuries.
This activity allows the farmers to make about 200 to 300 OMR – omani rials, the local currency – after a couple months. This equals about 520-780 dollars with today’s exchange rate.
Do you know the average productivity of a fully grown tree throughout the season? No less than 10 kilograms! The end of the harvesting season is named alkashem.
A DHOFARI STORY
Tapping the tree – the exact term used for the injuring/harvesting method – is a remarkable physical job that takes place under the burning wadi (desert in arabic) sun.
Back in the days, Dhofari mountain people lived off Incense, families had their own trees and harvested it. Luban was traditionally burned for its smoke in the whole country, and used to treat diseases. Before 1970, Frankincense was one of the main businesses in Oman.
In the 70’s, the rural exodus took many Dhofari farmers out of their native countryside, who moved to the city to take government jobs.
The previous Sultan Al Qaboos – one of the greatest rulers of the Sultanate of Oman – was a very respected man who wanted to help his people, and people in general, including his Somalian neighbors of lower income. Despite their modest lives due to their country’s economic struggles, Somalians have excellent professional knowledge of the Boswellia trees, as a different species grows on their land as well (Boswellia carteri).
Supported by the generous Sultan, some of them were welcomed to Oman. They rented the land the trees prospered onto from the lands’ owners – Omani Dhofari families – and worked as Incense farmers by tapping the tree.
Dhofar possesses a huge area of land: 100 000 km2! If the coast is well populated and known, many zones are very far, making them difficult to attain – West of Salalah, East Merbat – and its nature still intact.
Many Incense trees belonging to those areas have never been touched nor exploited, explaining why an important number remains in their wildest form.
LUBAN FLOWING THROUGH OMAN’S VEINS
We’ll say it again, Incense has always been used in Oman, even before the nation bore that name, when it was called “Magan” – the ancient region of Oman named by Sumerian texts between 2300-550 BC. So yes, a long time ago!
Employed in all its forms and many ways – apart from the common burning – the resin is today still added to drinks, eaten when free of impurities (more like chewed), used in treatments due to its anti-inflammatory benefits (including animal medicine), to keep out the moisture, and burned for birthdays and weddings.
Nevertheless, the traditional usage prevails until now, and most of the Incense is sold and used as a resin to burn.
INCENSE GRADES
Historically, the Boswellia sacra species has been classified into distinct grades in function of their provenance in the Dhofar region (and not quality)
Before 1970, four grades were identified. The shabi Frankincense, from the coast (not available on the market); the shazari Frankincense, from the cliffs of the mountains between the coast and the desert; the nagdi Frankincense from the wadi (desert); the hojari Frankincense from the Jabal Samhan area – a fabulous nature reserve in the Dhofari mountains, home to the endangered Arabian leopards!
Knowing someone local helps with identifying the provenance, as mixes are often sold.
When it comes to the resin’s color, just like its grade, it has nothing to do with its quality. Green Incense corresponds to resin from a dry area, the black one from a humid area where oxidation would provoke this darker color. Let’s also note that the same tree can give different colored resin!
Before 2008 – when Frankincense research took a turn – grades remained directly linked to the geographical origin of the resin. Passed that year, more focus was set onto these grades commercially speaking.
Nowadays, it’s said white luban free of impurities is the best, and that its quality decreases as its color becomes reddish or when mixed with impurities.
Moreover, hojari would now refer to Incense from a specific desert, claimed to be “clean” – and only a couple hundred kilograms of resin would be produced from there – making it pricy.
AN AMERICAN DISTILLER IN OMAN
In Muscat (pronounced “Mascat”), we met Trygve Harris an American Incense distiller – owner & founder of Enfleurage – who’s been in the country for over 10 years. Calling herself an “aromatic artist”, Trygve first came to Oman in 2006 because of her love for Incense and desire to move to the sultanate.
Her passion for Oman and its luban, was in part driven by her admiration for the previous sultan Qaboos bin Said, who ruled for 50 years from 1970 to 2020. He founded Amouage in 1983, willing to reconnect the country with the arabic luxury perfume tradition. Back then, recalls Harris, the bottles were fabulous — all crystal, silver, gold and semi-precious stones.
Harris has been in the essential oil business for over 25 years and owns her company shop "Enfleurage" in New York City selling essences by supplying herself she buys from small distillers all over the world. She worked with woods a lot, especially Agar Wood (Oud or Aquiliaria trees) — one of her main focuses.
When she initially came to see the trees, and meet her Frankincense distiller and supplier, Harris wasn’t expecting him to take a different path career-wise and leaving her, soon after her visit, with no more Frankincense essence for her shop for two years straight!
This raw material was too important for her and she brought some resin back to her New York City apartment to try to distillate it with her small alembic. She surprised herself by getting the distillation right, which motivated her to go forward with the process.
In 2010 she even experimented with frankincense ice-cream which caught international attention, and was featured in the press by important medias like CNN.
After some short stays in Oman — renting an apartment and distilling more Frankincense and some other aromatic raw materials — she decided to move to Oman and establish a distillery to supply her own shop in New York City, and export to sell abroad.
She first moved to Salalah in 2011 where she started her Incense distillation until 2012 when she relocated to the capital. Back then she didn’t have the quality control to sell to Europe, but she does now.
HARRIS’ DISTILLERY
The American distiller put together a circulating distillation system – she built initially using five stills she brought to Oman – to not generate any waste. She and her assistant make about 70 kilograms of Frankincense essential oil per month. They also do Frankincense/Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) co-distillation.
Her supplier allows her to get very fresh Frankincense resin, and she orders Myrrh from Somalia, which takes a long time to arrive in Muscat given the far distance.
She produces essential oils, hydrosols, and even uses the detritus containing boswellic acids — terpenes (family of molecules) produced by the genus Boswellia found in the trees’ resin and shown to have anti-inflammatory properties among others. Harris was able to extract these acids – by a process of her own – from the detritus.
About 15-20% of triterpenic acids are present in the oleo-gum resin, among which the boswellic ones. The essential oil, on another hand, doesn’t contain any boswellic acid.
Nowadays Harris’ essential oil reaches the rest of the world — Europe, the United States and Asia being her main clients. Being a foreign woman distiller in a country that’s not her own, has surely been an adventure for Harris, but she successfully met the enriching challenge!
SOME USEFUL INSIGHT
Our investigation and whereabouts surely led us to meet broadening local actors of Frankincense, and allowed us to understand better this thousand-year-old market – and we hope it came in handy for you too!
The Dhofari Frankincense is widely sold among Oman and its local population, but its rarity and venerable smaller production – compared to its Somali and Yemeni neighbors – have made it an exclusive and prized exceptional good for the international scene.
It is recognized as one – if not the – finest Frankincense species and provenance in the world!
Anna Grézaud-Tostain